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1. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Brief Concepts of the Lesson
1) In
1848 Frederic Sorrieu a French artist visualized his dream of a world made up
of Democratic and Social
Republics. As a result
nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the
Political and mental world of Europe.
2) Due
to the French revolution of 1789 the idea of National state and National
identity emerged. Napoleonic Code and reforms carried out in other parts of Europe gave the idea of Social, Economic and Political
Liberalism.
3) Occurrence
of revolutions in Brussels
and Greece
and development of cultural movement in Europe.
4) Unification
of Germany
and Italy.
The formation of Great
Britain.
5) The
allegories of Marianne in France
and Germania in Germany were invented by the
artists in the 19th century representing the Nation. Thus the
female figure became an allegory of the Nation.
6)
The growth of undue Nationalism
and Imperialism in Europe paved the way for tension
and conflict in Balkans States. Due to rise of Nationalism in Balkans States there
was a spirit of struggle for Independence.
At the outset the Political atmosphere in Balkans States led Europe
to disaster in 1914.
Important terms
Absolutist – Literally, a
government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In
history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was
centralised, militarised and repressive.
Plebiscite – A direct
vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a
proposal.
Conservatism: – A
political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established
institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick change.
Feminist: – Awareness
of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social, economic and
political equality of the genders
Ideology: – System of
ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision
Questions & Answers
1.
Write notes on.
a) Guiseppe Mazzini
b) Count Camillo de Cavour
c) The Greek war of independence
d) Frankfurt parliament
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
ANSWERS:
a) Guiseppe
Mazzini.
(i)
Born in Genoa
in 1807, he became a member of the secret society of the carbonari.
(ii)
As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for
attempting a revolution in Liguria.
(iii)
He subsequently founded two more underground societies,
first, Young Italy in Marseilles,
and then, Young Europe in Berne
(iv)
Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision
of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.
b) Count
Camillo de Cavour
(i)
Cavour was the chief minister of Italy
(ii)
Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was
neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
(iii)
Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France
engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian
forces in 1859.
c)
The Greek War of Independence
(i)
Greece had been
part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth
century.
(ii)
The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst
the Greeks, which began in 1821.
(iii)
Nationalists in Greece got support from other
Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans
(iv)
The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an
independent nation.
d) Frankfurt Parliament
(i)
In the German regions a large number of political
associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and
prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote
for an all-German National Assembly.
(ii)
On 18
May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive
procession.
(iii)
They drafted a constitution for the German nation to be
headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
(iv)
The deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich
Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia; he rejected it
and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
e) The Role
of Women in Nationalist Struggles
(i)
The issue of extending political rights to women was a
controversial one within the liberal movement,
(ii)
Large numbers of women had participated actively over the
years.
(iii)
Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers
and took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
2.
What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a
sense of collective identity
among the French people
Ans:
(i)
The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le
citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying
equal rights under a constitution.
(ii)
A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the
former royal standard.
(iii)
The Estates General was elected by the body of active
citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(iv)
New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs
commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
(v)
A centralised administrative system was put in place and
it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
(vi)
Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a
uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were
discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the
nation.
3.
Explain what
is meant by the 1848 revolutions of the liberals. What were the Political, Social
and Economic ideas supported by the Liberals?
Ans:
The
1848 Revolutions of the Liberals:
(i)
It was a revolt, which was led by unemployed, workers, and
peasants and educated middle class.
(ii)
Events of February 1848 in France had brought about abdication
of the monarch and a Republic based on universal suffrage had been proclaimed.
(iii)
The changes in France inspired men and women of
middle class of Germany,
Italy,
Poland
and Austro-Hungarian to fight for national unification.
(iv)
The liberals took advantage of the unrest prevailing in
the society. They demanded the creation of nation state on parliamentary
principles, freedom of press, freedom of association.
Political,
Social and Economic ideas of Liberals:
(i)
The liberals demanded the creation of nation state on
parliamentary principles.
(ii)
The issue of extending political rights for women was
controversial as some of them were in favour of political rights for women
while most of the liberals were against it.
(iii)
Serfdom and bonded labour was abolished in most of the
European countries due to the efforts of the liberals.
4.
Who were the
Marianne and the Germania? What was the
importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Ans:
a. Artists in
the 18th and 19th centuries started representing nations in human forms. Nation
was then portrayed as female figures.
b. The female
form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular
woman in life; rather it became the allegory of the nation.
c. Even after
the French revolution, artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such
as Liberty,
Justice and Republic.
d. These ideals
were represented through specific objects or symbols. The attributes of liberty
were the red cap or the broken chain, while Justice was generally a blind
folded woman carrying weighing scales.
e. In France, she was
christened MARIANNE, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of people's
nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of the red cap, the tricolor,
and the cockade. To popularize the national symbol the statues was erected in
public squares. Marianne images were also marked on coins and stamps.
f. Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In
visual representation, Germania wears a crown
of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
5.
Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture
to the growth of nationalism in Europe?
Ans: Contribution
of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:
[1] Role of Culture:
Culture
played an important role in creating the idea of nations, art and poetry,
stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Romanticism, is
a cultural movement that sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment. The effort of the artists and the poets was to basically create a
sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a
nation.
[2] Role of Music, Dance.etc.
Other
Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that
true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. It was
through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the
nation was popularized.
[3] Role of Language:
Language too
played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian
occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere. In1831, an armed rebellion against Russian
rule took place, which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of
the clergy in Poland
began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
6.
Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations
developed over the 19th century.
Ans:
The making of
nationalism in Germany
and Italy:
(i) In the
mid of the 18th century in Europe
there were no nation states as we know of them today.
(ii) Germany and Italy were
divided into kingdoms. Eastern and Central Europe
was under autocratic rule with in the territories lived people of diverse
cultures.
(iii) The
Habsburg empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary,
for example, was an area having intense diversity of culture and language too.
It included the Alpine regions- the Tyrol, Austria and Sudetenland- as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was
predominantly German speaking. It also included the Italian speaking provinces
of Lombardy and Venetia.
(iv) In Hungary half of
the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke different dialects. In Galicia, the
aristocracy spoke Polish.
Thus such
differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie
binding them was a common kingdom.
Through the
19th century nationalist feeling kept arising but the autocracy and
the clergy suppressed most of it.
7.
How was the
history of nationalism in Britain
unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans:
NATIONALISM
IN BRITAIN
·
Britain in earlier
times
There
was no British nation prior to the 18th century. The ethnic groups
consisted of the English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. All of them had different
cultures and political interests.
·
Becoming a supreme power
The
English Parliament had seized power from the monarchy in 1688. It was an
instrument through which a nation-state with England at its Centre came to be
forged.
·
Dominance over Scotland
The
Act of Union made Scotland
to come under England.
The English people dominated the English Parliament. Catholic people also faced
terrible repression whenever they tried to assert their freedom. The Scottish
Highlanders were not allowed to speak their national language and wear their
national clothes. Many were driven out of their homeland.
·
Domination over Ireland
Ireland was deeply
divided into Protestants and the Catholics. The English helped Protestants to
establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts
were suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone, Ireland
was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
·
New Britain
The
symbols of the new Britain
were: the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble
King), the English Language were actively promoted and the older nations
survived only as subordinate partners in the nations.
8.
Why did Nationalist
tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans:
NATIONALISM
AMONG BALKANS
·
The Balkans
It
was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro
whose inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs.
·
Spread of Nationalism
The
spread of the idea of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this
region very explosive.
·
Claim of Independence
The
Balkans based their claims for independence of political rights on nationality
and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had been
subjugated by foreign power.
Hence, the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles
as their attempts to win back their long lost independence.
·
Area of intense conflict
As
the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their territories the
Balkan region became a region of intense conflict. The Balkan states were
extremely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the
expense of the other. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also
became the scene of big power rivalry.
9.
What changes
did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the
territories ruled by him?
Ans.
Reforms introduced by Napoleon
to make his administrative system more efficient.
- Napoleon destroyed democracy in France.
- He introduced civil code of 804 usually known as the Napoleonic code in the administrative field.
- He had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.
Features
of Napoleonic code
He removed all
discrimination based on birth, sex, and established equality before the law and
secured the right to property.
Changes took place after
the establishment of Napoleonic code
Napoleon simplified
administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from
serfdom and manorial dues.
Transport and communication
systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessman enjoyed
a newfound freedom.
Businessmen and small-scale
producers realized that uniform laws, standardized weight and measures and
common currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital
from one region to another.
10. Briefly trace the process of German and Italy
unification. Compare both of them.
Ans.
Establishment of German unification
·
Nationalist feelings were wide spread among middle class Germans, who in
1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a
nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
·
The Liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined
forces of monarchy and the military, supported by the large land owners (called
Junkers) of Prussia.
·
Otto Von Bismarck (chief minister) was the architect of the unification
process carried out with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
·
After fighting three wars in seven years with Austria, Denmark and France,the
Prussian won and completed the process of unification
·
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German
emperor in the ceremony held at Versailles.
Geographical
feature of Italy
Italians were scattered
over several dynastic states as well as multi-national Habsburg Empire. During
the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states
of which Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by the Italian princely house.
PROCESS OF THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
·
During 1830, Guiseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent
programme for a unitary Italian republic.
·
Mazzini had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for the
dissemination of goals.
·
The failure of revolutionary uprising both in 1831 and 1848 meant that
the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler king Victor Emmanuel
II to unify the Italian states through war.
·
Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the region of Italy was
neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.
·
Wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite spoke French much
better than they spoke Italian.
·
Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
·
A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi
joined the fray.
·
In 1860, they marched into south Italy and the kingdom of two
sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to
drive out the Spanish ruler. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was
proclaimed the king of Italy.
.
Comparison
1. In both the countries,
nationalist feelings were wide spread among middle-class people.
2. The nationality among the
people developed the legal and judicial system and modernised the currency and
banking.
EXTRA-QUESTIONS:
1. What is a
nation state?
2. Mention two
significance of the Treaty of Constantinople.
3. What is “July
Revolution”?
4. What is
Romanticism?
5. How did the
artists of the 18th and19th century visualize a nation? Illustrate
with an example.
6. What were the
consequences of the Treaty of Vienna?
7. What were the
changes that came into existence after the English parliament took over in the United Kingdom of Great
Britain in 1688?
8. Explain the
term liberal nationalism. How did the growth of liberalism help in promoting
economic nationalism?
9. What were the
factors that led to the rise of Nationalism in Europe?
fabolous..............
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