Mixed Bag

Chapter VII

Outcomes of Democracy

Is democracy a better form of government when compared with dictatorship or any other alternative?

1.      Democracy is better because it promotes equality among citizens.

2.      Democracy is better because it enhances the dignity of the individual

3.      Democracy is better because it improves the quality of decision making

4.      Democracy is better because it provides a method to resolve conflicts

5.      Democracy is better because it allows room to correct mistakes.

Is the democratic government efficient? Is it effective?

1.      Imagine that other form of government may take decisions very fast. But it may take decisions which are not accepted by the people and may therefore face problems.

2.      Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation. So, some delay is bound to take place.

3.      In contrast, the democratic government will take more time to follow procedures before arriving at a decision.

4.      But because it has followed procedures, its decisions may be both more acceptable to the people and more effective.

5.      So, the cost of time that democracy pays is perhaps worth it.

Democracy is Accountable, responsive and legitimate government

1.      Democracy ensures that decision making will be based on norms and procedures. So, a citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of decision making. This is known as transparency. Democracy follows procedures and is accountable to the people.

2.      Democratic governments have a very good record when it comes to sharing information with citizens and much better than any non-democratic regime in this respect. Democracy is attentive to the needs and demands of the people and is largely free of corruption.

3.    There is one respect in which democratic government is certainly better than its alternatives: democratic government is legitimate government. It may be slow, less efficient, not always very responsive or clean. But a democratic government is people’s own government.

Economic growth and development

1.       Economic development depends on several factors: country’s population size, global situation, cooperation from other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.

2.      However, the difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.

3.      Overall, we cannot say that democracy is a guarantee of economic development. But we can expect democracy not to lag behind dictatorships in economic development.

Democracy reduces economic inequality and poverty

1.      Democracies have growing economic inequalities. A small number of ultra-rich enjoy a lion share of wealth and those at the bottom of the society have very little to depend upon and find very difficult to meet their basic needs of life, such as food, clothing, house, education and health.

2.      Democratically elected governments address the question of poverty by making various welfare schemes to remove poverty.

3.      Democracies not only making welfare schemes but also give reservations for socially and economically backward people in jobs, election and educational institutions.

Democracy Accommodates of social diversity

1.      Democracies usually develop a procedure to accommodate various social groups. This reduces the possibility of social tensions becoming explosive or violent.

2.      No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But democracy is best to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts. 

3.      But the example of Sri Lanka reminds us that a democracy must fulfill two conditions in order to achieve accommodation of social divisions,

a.       It is necessary to understand that democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The majority always needs to work with the minority so that governments function to represent the general view.

b.      It is also necessary that rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic group, etc. Rule by majority means rule by majority’s choice.

Democracy promotes Dignity and freedom of the citizens

1.      Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual by providing Fundamental Rights. Every individual wants to receive respect from fellow beings.

2.      The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy. Democracies throughout the world have recognised this, at least in principle. This has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies.

3.      Take the case of dignity of women. Most societies across the world were historically male dominated societies.

4.      Long struggles by women have created some sensitivity today that respect to and equal treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a democratic society.

5.      Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal opportunity.

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Expectation from democracy never gets over.

1.      As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more and want to make democracy even better.

2.      That is why, when we ask people about the way democracy functions, they will always come up with more expectations, and many complaints.

3.      The fact that people are complaining is itself a testimony to the success of democracy: it shows that people have developed awareness and the ability to expect and to look critically at power holders and the high and the mighty.

Chapter-VIII

Challenges to Democracy

What is a challenge?

A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which are significant and which can be overcome.

A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.

Different countries face different kinds of challenges.

1.       Foundational challenge -This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state.

2.      Challenge of expansion-This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions. Ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge.

3.      Deepening of democracy –This is faced by every democracy in one form or another. This involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy by more people’s participation and control.

Some broad guidelines that can be kept in mind while devising ways and means for political reforms in India:

1.    It is legal ways of reforming politics- law has an important role to play in political reform. Carefully devised changes in law can help to discourage wrong political practices and encourage good ones. (But legal-constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy. Democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens.)

2.    Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Laws that give political actors incentives to do good things have more chances of working. The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms. (The Right to Information Act is a good example of a law that empowers the people to find out what is happening in government and act as watchdogs of democracy)

3.    Democratic reforms are to be brought about principally through political practice. Therefore, the main focus of political reforms should be to increase and improve the quality of political participation by ordinary citizens.

4.    Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is a good solution but also about who will implement it and how. Measures that rely on democratic movements, citizens’ organizations and the media are likely to succeed.

5.    Let us keep these general guidelines in mind and look at some specific instances of challenges to democracy that require some measure of reform.

Old Definition of Democracy

1.      The rulers elected by the people must take all the major decisions

2.      Elections must offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers

3.      This choice and opportunity should be available to all the people on an equal basis

4.      The exercise of this choice must lead to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens’ rights.

New and modern definition of democracy

1.    Democracy not only should provide political rights but also some social and economic rights that a democracy should offer to its citizens.

2.    Power sharing between governments and social groups is necessary in a democracy.

3.    Respect for minority voice is necessary for democracy.

4.    Eliminating discrimination based on caste, religion and gender is important in a democracy.

5.    Democracy must bring all positive outcomes like accountability, responsive, reducing poverty etc.

Nationalism in India

How did nationalism emerge in India?(Associated with Anti-colonial Movement)

1.      People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.

2.      The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.

3.      The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement.

4.      In India, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement.

Effects of World War I in India

1.      First World War created a new economic and political situation. It led to a huge increase of taxes like customs duties and income tax introduced.

2.      Through the war years prices increased which led to extreme hardship for the common people.

3.      Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.

4.      From 1918 to 1921, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic.

5.      According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic.

What is Satyagraha?

1.      The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the struggle was against truth and injustice, without seeking angry, vengeance or aggression, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence.

Successful satyagraha movements from 1916 to1918

Mahatma Gandhi successfully organized three satyagraha movements in various places.

1.      In 1916 Mahatma Gandhi travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.

2.      Then in 1917, Mahatma Gandhi organised a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat who were affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed.

3.      In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organize a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

The Rowlatt Act and Rowlatt Satyagraha

1.      Rowlatt Act (1919) gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

2.      Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April 1919.

3.      Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed down.

Causes for Jallianwalla Bagh massacre

1.      To repress Rowlatt Satyagraha local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.

2.      On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

3.      On 13 April a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Being from outside the city, many villagers were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.

4.      General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.

5.      As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings. The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people.

Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement.

Khilafat Committee and Khilafat Movement

1.       The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey and a harsh peace treaty was imposed on the Ottoman Emperor ( Khalifa) – the spiritual head of the Islamic world.

2.      To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.

3.      Young Muslim leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began a movement against the British in India which is called Khilafat Movement.

4.      Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims and Hindus under the umbrella of a unified national movement.

5.      At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.

Why did Gandhiji organize Non-cooperation?

1.      Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established and survived in India with the cooperation of Indians.

2.      If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come.

How could (idea of ) non-cooperation become a mass movement?

(How was Non Cooperation movement unfolded in Stages?)

1.      Gandhiji proposed that the movement should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded.

2.      The movement should continue with boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.

3.      Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

How did different social groups conceive of the idea of Non-Cooperation?

The Movement in the Towns with middle-class participation

1.      The movement started with thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned.

2.      Lawyers gave up their legal practices and boycotted courts.

3.      The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.

4.      Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.

5.      In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.

Why did the movement in the cities gradually slow down? Give reasons.

1.      Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. Common people began to wear foreign cloth.

2.      Similarly the boycott of British educational institutions posed a problem because there were no alternative Indian institutions. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools.

3.      Lawyers and officers could not survive without income so they joined back work in government courts and offices.

Rebellion in the Countryside of Awadh

1.      In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents, free labour and a variety of other taxes.

2.      The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places barbers and washer men refused to serve the landlords(nai – dhobi bandh)

3.      By October, 1920 the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the villages around the region.

4.      When the Non- Cooperation Movement began, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.

5.       In many places local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had declared that no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed among the poor.

Rebellion in the forest of Andhra Pradesh

1.      In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits.

2.      This enraged the hill people. Not only were their livelihoods affected but they felt that their traditional rights were being denied. When the government began forcing them to contribute beggar for road building, the hill people revolted.

3.      The person who came to lead them was Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed that he had a variety of special powers: he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots.

4.      Raju was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement and Gandhiji. He persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.

5.      The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj. Raju was captured and executed in 1924, and over time became a folk hero.

Plantation workers and Non Cooperation Movement

1.      Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens.

2.      When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home (Bihar, Bengal and Orissa).

3.      For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come.

4.      They believed that Gandhi Raj has come and everyone would be given land in their own villages.

5.      On the way to steamer and railway stations they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.

What were the two factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s?

1.       The first was the effect of the worldwide economic depression. Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930.

2.      As the demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined, peasants found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.

Simon Commission

1.      In 1928 a commission was appointed under Sir John Simon called Simon Commission.

2.      It was appointed to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

3.      The problem was that the commission did not have a single Indian member. They were all British.

4.      When the Simon Commission arrived in India it was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back Simon’.

5.      All parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations.

Round Table Conferences

1.      Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India announced (1929) a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for India in an unspecified future, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future constitution.

2.      There were three Round Table Conferences held in London. Gandhiji attended the second  Round Table Conference.

3.      Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

4.      When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society.

5.      Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.

Lahore Congress Session-1929

1.      Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, became more assertive and brought radical ideas into the Congress.

2.      In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or complete independence for India.

3.      It was declared that if British government does not grant self-rule within a year, 26 January 1930, will be celebrated as the Independence Day.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

1.      Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. Salt was the item consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food.

2.      The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production made Mahatma Gandhi to launch a civil disobedience campaign.

3.      Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers.

4.      The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi.

5.      On 6 April he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the salt law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water.This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

How was Civil Disobedience Movement different from the Non-Cooperation Movement?

Civil Disobedience Movement	Non-Cooperation Movement
People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British, but also to break colonial laws	People were asked  to refuse cooperation with the British,
Participation of women was more in Non Cooperation Movement	Participation of women was less in Non Cooperation Movement

Civil Disobedience Movement

1.      Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.

2.       As the movement spread, foreign cloth was boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and taxes, village officials resigned.

3.      In many places forest people violated forest laws – going into Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.

4.      When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing. Many were killed.

5.      When Mahatma Gandhi himself was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts and railway stations – all structures that

symbolised British rule.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

1.      Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement and entered into a pact with Irwin called Gandhi-Irwin Pact.

2.      According to the pact Gandhiji agreed to participate in the 2^nd Round Table Conference in London.

3.      Lord Irwin agreed to release the political prisoners.

Poona Pact:

1.      Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

2.      When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society.

3.      Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.

4.      According to Poona Pact Gandhiji promised to give reservations to dalits after independence.

5.      According to Poona Pact B.R Ambedkar agreed to give away the separate electorate for Dalits.

How did different social groups participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement?

1.      Rich peasant communities :–They were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices. As their cash income disappeared, they found it impossible to pay the government’s revenue demand. These rich peasants became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

2.      The poor peasants: – As the Depression continued and cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay their rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted (removed).

3.      The business classes (Industrialists): They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports. To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.

4.      The industrial workers:  some workers did participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement, selectively adopting the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign goods, against low wages and poor working conditions.

5.      Women: During Gandhiji’s salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to participate in protest marches, manufacture salt, and picket foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. In urban areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas they came from rich peasant households.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Dalits

1.      For long the Congress had ignored the dalits. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated.

2.      He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.

3.      He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the sweepers), and persuaded upper castes to change their heart and give up ‘the sin of untouchability’.

4.      Dalit leaders began organising themselves into associations, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.

5.      Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement was therefore limited, particularly in the Maharashtra and Nagpur region where their organisation was quite strong.

Muslim Political Organisations:

1.      After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress.

2.      From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.

3.      As relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened, each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.

4.      The Congress and the Muslim League made efforts to renegotiate an alliance. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly.

5.      Negotiations over the question of representation continued but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise. When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was  large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

How did people belonging to different communities, regions or language groups develop a sense of collective belonging?

1.      In the 20^th century the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata and portrayed it as an ascetic figure, calm, composed, divine and spiritual.

2.      In the 1870s Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal and other national movements.

3.      Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore. Nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India.

4.      During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolor (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

5.      Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was through reinterpretation of history. The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements in art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished.